Activity 2.1 | Indigenous History in Canada

Terminology

To better understand Indigenous people and their ways of being, reviewing some of the history and stories that families carry is useful. Stories greatly influence children. If they aren’t told stories, they make their own.

The history of the relationship between the early colonists and then the government of Canada with Indigenous peoples has been difficult for over 500 years. Gradual changes for the benefit of Indigenous peoples only began to happen in the last 75 years, a relatively short time considering that most of us know people, parents or grandparents, who lived during that time.

Let’s look at some of the events in Canadian history that shaped the current landscape and continue to affect Indigenous communities and families.

But first, it may be helpful to familiarize some terminology:

• Aboriginal Peoples – collective name for the First Peoples of Canada – Constitution Act of 1982 (S 35) recognizes three groups – First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. 
  • Aboriginal people (lower case) – refers to more than one Aboriginal person. 
  • Try not to use “Aboriginal Peoples” to identify only one of these groups – specific language is preferred, i.e., First Nations, or the specific name of the nation. 
• Indigenous means ‘native to the area’. Indigenous is the preferred term. It was first used internationally and refers to the First Peoples in areas throughout the world.
• Turtle Island is a term used by many Indigenous peoples to represent North American. It originated in a creation story.
• First Nations – term that came into use in the 1970s – preferred term over ‘Indian’ (though this is largely used in Canadian policy). It includes both Status and non-Status people (as defined under the Indian Act). It is not a synonym for Aboriginal Peoples, as it does not include Métis and Inuit peoples.  
  • Previously, ‘Native’ was a widely accepted term to use but has become outdated. Some older First Nations people refer to themselves with this term.
• Métis - “a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of Historic Métis Nation ancestry, and is accepted by the Métis Nation” (MNC, 2002). Some people refer to anyone of mixed heritage as Métis, but this is incorrect.
• Inuit – means “people” in Inuktitut; includes Indigenous people in Northern Canada as well as in other circumpolar areas across the globe (terms may vary). The singular is Inuk.

Stages of Colonization

Stage 1 Separate Worlds

“The lands in BC have been populated by the ancestors of First Nations since time immemorial” (First Nations Health Authority, 2019). This is true for all of Turtle Island, inclusive of the lands that are now known as Canada.

Prior to European contact, evidence shows that First Nations people’s lives were healthy and vibrant attributed in part to traditional ways of life that included hunting and fishing, gathering plants for foods and medicines and taking care to not overuse resources.

There was great diversity of many nations and tribes across the continent. The peoples had their own languages, oral traditions, spiritualities, forms of governance, and established trade routes and migration pathways.

During the same period 500 years ago in Britain and Europe, kingdoms began to seek new places to find resources and move their populations. There was a belief at that time that what is now referred to as North America was terra nullius (land belonging to no one). In essence, this meant that lands not occupied by people like themselves were unoccupied and available to conquer. This was also known as the Doctrine of Discovery.

Repudiation of the Doctrine

“In March 2023, the Vatican officially repudiated the Doctrine of Discovery. In a statement, the Vatican admitted that the papal bulls on which the doctrine is based "did not adequately reflect the equal dignity and rights of indigenous peoples". The statement denied that the Doctrine of Discovery was a teaching of the Catholic Church and claimed that these documents had been "manipulated for political purposes" by colonial empires to justify their treatment of Indigenous people. The Vatican also acknowledged the importance of Indigenous voices in addressing the Doctrine of Discovery.

Some Indigenous groups and representatives generally received the Vatican statement on the Doctrine of Discovery as a positive first step. However, many pointed out that the statement stopped short of rescinding the papal bulls, Dum Diversas (1452), Romanus Pontifex (1455) and Inter Caetera (1493) on which the doctrine is based” (HumanRights.ca, date). 

Stage 2 Contact and Cooperation

Recent research indicated that more Indigenous people inhabited Turtle Island at the time of European contact than previously believed. “Pre-contact population estimates for BC vary widely with some estimates ranging from a conservative 200,000 to more than a million” (First Nations Health Authority, 2019).

Initially, Indigenous peoples far outnumbered European settlers. The settlers required the assistance of Indigenous peoples as they moved across the continent. They were guides across the mountains and bodies of water, introduced foods and medicines, and supported the travellers in harsh climates. The settlers viewed them as political equals. There were alliances, including marriages, mutual protection and trade between them. The fur trade was important to Europeans and the Indigenous hunters and trappers supplied many traders. Wars began in the mid-1700s as the fur traders wanted to control the trade and territories. Another shift was the introduction of infectious diseases such as smallpox that decimated villages and large populations. Some Nations diminished in size by up to 90% (Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2004). This resulted not only in population loss but also cultural loss and poverty. 

Stage 3 Displacement and Assimilation

As the settlers and fur traders expanded further into the west the economic system began to change, partly due to a decline in furs. The Hudson Bay Company managed the fur trade and controlled much of the huge territory of north and western of what is now Canada. In 1869, the new country of Canada bought “Rupert’s Land” which became part of the mid-western provinces.

Prior to the formation of the Confederation of Canada, legislators began to implement laws to control the Indigenous Peoples. These oppressive pieces of early legislation included: 

• 1850 – An Act of the Better Protection of Indians in Upper Canada  
• 1857 – Civilization of Indian Tribes Act 
• 1859 – The Civilization and Enfranchisement Act 
• 1869 – Act for the Gradual Enfranchisement of Indians and the Better Management of Indian Affairs
• 1876 – The Indian Act (including the Indian Residential School System and the Reserve System.

The Indian Act is still in effect 150 years later. Although many parts of it have been changed, such as the closing of residential schools, the reserve system, and the classification of citizens, challenges still exist.

After World War II, gradual changes began in the Indian Act. In 1951 amendments to the Act removed some of the worst oppressions. Ceremonies such as the Sundance and the Potlatch system flourished again. Although the provinces were given jurisdiction over child welfare, discrimination continued and resulted in what is known as the Sixties Scoop. In the next module of this course, you will be invited to view a film on this topic.

Further changes to the Indian Act in 1960 finally allowed Indigenous people with Indian status to vote. Previously one could not vote without renouncing Indian status. However, Indigenous women with Indian status remained under their male spouses in not being able to own land in their communities or losing status if marrying a non-status man. This did not change until Bill C-31 in 1985. There are still issues with passing on Indian status that leaders in early childhood programs may encounter as it can affect the delivery of certain services. 

View the short YouTube video, The Indian Act: A Summary from Historica Canada. 

Stage 4 Negotiation and Renewal

Negotiation is often political. A cultural awakening in Indigenous communities began during the 1960s which influenced many aspects of life in Canada. The Canadian government counteracted with one act in particular, the White Paper in 1969, that attempted removal of Indigenous rights but was not successful. During this period, Indigenous groups began to grow in strength together, resulting in what is now the Assembly of First Nations, a powerful advocate for the rights of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Treaty negotiations were taking place in British Columbia and other parts of Canada, restoring lands and rights. As the Canadian government began to participate with First Nations and then Métis people in legal agreements new legislation was passed. This included the Constitution Act 1982. Finally, internationally the United Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act, which was adopted by the Canadian government in 2021. 

Read the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act backgrounderand consider this framework as a way to advance implementation of the Declaration. 

Renewal is related to recognition of the oppression that legislation has imposed on Indigenous peoples. More funding started being allocated to facilitate change and healing. Two examples in the 1990’s are the Aboriginal Healing Foundation and Jordan’s Principle. The recognition of the horrors of residential schools was finally in the public eye. The Canadian government gave a formal apology in 2008. Many survivors were eligible for healing services and financial compensation.

Within the last decade The Truth and Reconciliation Commission began to make a difference. Government ministries, institutions, and businesses are working towards Indigenization of programs and services. However, it is not a quick and easy process. Changes are suggested and made, then revert to former actions. We have a long way to go. Leaders in early childhood education and childcare have the important task of continuing the eradication of oppression through building awareness, sharing better ways of working against racism and oppression and role modeling acceptance of the rights of all cultures in our communities.

References

Aboriginal Healing Foundation. (2004). Annual report 2003–2004. https://www.ahf.ca/files/annual-report-2004.pdf​

Canadian Museum for Human Rights. (2023, March 30). The Doctrine of Discovery. https://humanrights.ca/story/doctrine-discovery

Department of Justice Canada. (2021, June 21). United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act – Backgrounder. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/declaration/about-apropos.html

Government of Canada (date). Backgrounder: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/declaration/about-apropos.html 

Historica (2023). The Indian Act. [YouTube]. https://youtu.be/hjtoUaNvvLo?si=r7f1Bkl4XTxg5vz9

Journal Reflection

In your journal, reflect on any new learning from this activity. 

If there are Indigenous children in your programs, consider as you reflect: 

• Have any parents shared information about their culture or language?
• Have they made any requests to include different materials or storybooks? 
• What can you do to be more inclusive of Indigenous families?